Ap Dijksterhuis
Email:
Biographical Sketch:
I obtained my PhD in 1996 at the Radboud University Nijmegen (at that time still called University of Nijmegen). Between 1996 and 1999 I was a Research Fellow of the Royal Dutch Academy of Arts and Sciences (which really is just a very fancy post-doc position) and in 2000 I moved to the University of Amsterdam as an Associate professor. In 2002 I became Full professor and in 2006 I moved back to the Radboud University Nijmegen. In 2005, I won both the APA Award for Early Career contributions and the EAESP Kurt Lewin Award. In that same year, I also received a 'VICI' grant, the biggest grant of the Dutch Science Foundation (NWO). The money of this grant is spent on research on unconscious thought, conscious thought, and decision making and I'm doing this research with the wild bunch of people you find on this website. In 2007 I published a popular psychology book in Dutch called 'Het slimme onbewuste' ('The smart unconscious') which became a bestseller. HP / De Tijd selected me as one of the top 100 of most influential Dutch people.
I very much like cooking (and eating!) and I drink and collect single malt whisky.
I very much like cooking (and eating!) and I drink and collect single malt whisky.
Research Interests:
I investigate the psychological unconscious. Over the years, I have explored various aspects of the unconscious, but in the end, my endeavors always boil down to the same set of questions: What can we do unconsciously? How sophisticated is the unconscious? Do we really need consciousness, and if so, what does it do?
The main lines of research I pursue or have pursued are the following:
Unconscious thought (2002 to present)
At one point, I became fascinated by incubation. Why is it that we suddenly have a good idea or that we suddenly know what to do regarding an important decision? We hypothesized that, in addition to conscious thought, there is also unconscious thought. That is, even when conscious attention is directed elsewhere, we can unconsciously mull over a problem, idea or decision. By now, we have accumulated quite some evidence suggesting that there is indeed unconscious thought, and that it can be extremely useful.
This was the first paper on unconscious thought. It shows that a period of unconscious thought improves complex decision making relative to conscious thought. This paper made the idea of unconscious thought available to a wide audience. In the paper, we tested and confirmed –in both the lab and the real world- the “deliberation-without-attention” hypothesis: The idea that unconscious thought is better for complex decisions than conscious thought, whereas the reverse is true for simple decisions. In this paper we present the Unconscious Thought Theory (UTT), a tentative theory in which we compare unconscious and conscious thought with the help of a number of principles regarding how each works. This paper also won the 'SPSP theoretical innovation award' in 2007. In this paper and this paper we report tests of some aspects of UTT. Here you find a recent chapter, in which we speculate about the usefulness of unconscious thought for decision making in which the relative weights given to different attributes is very important. This is a recent paper we submitted. It shows that unconscious thought is goal-dependent.
The entire unconscious lab is involved in research on UTT, but the work also benefits from collaboration with others such as Loran Nordgren (University of Amsterdam), Pamela Smith (Radboud University Nijmegen), and Chenbo Zhong (University of Toronto).
The perception-behavior link (1995-2001)
In 1995, I followed in John Bargh’s footsteps and started to investigate the idea that it is possible to prime overt behavior. We showed that (see this paper) priming can increase intellectual performance. In a series of studies we primed people with professors (or soccer-hooligans) after which performed better (or worse) on a general knowledge test that was based on the game “Trivial Pursuit”.
Over the years, we have tested several moderators and mediators of such effects. In this paper, Russell Spears and I (and many others!) showed that priming an exemplar results in behavior contrast. Our most important paper in this line of research is this paper, which is both an early review as well as a description of how behavior priming might work. This paper applies the phenomenon of behavior priming to consumer choice, and this paper#B5 contains a recent review of the phenomenon.
Goals (1996-present)
I have done some work on goals but really only as a wing-man of my good friend Henk Aarts. By now, he has published dozens of papers on goal pursuit but we started to collaborate on goal-dependent automaticity. In this paper we showed that goals can automatically activate habitual behavior (e.g., the goal to go to work automatically activates “car” if you are a habitual car user). In this paper we showed that goals can automatically activate norms (e.g., the goal to go to the library automatically activates whispering).
Implicit self-esteem (2000-present)
Sander Koole got me interested in the implicit/explicit distinction when he started to investigate the idea that implicit and explicit self-esteem are differentially correlated under different circumstances. His idea was important, he was among the first to realize that it is important to study when they correlate, rather then merely whether they correlate, as was still common in those days. This paper was the result. In this paper, I tried to shed more light on implicit self-esteem by conditioning it. This is a chapter in which we give our perspective on the implicit/explicit distinction.
The main lines of research I pursue or have pursued are the following:
Unconscious thought (2002 to present)
At one point, I became fascinated by incubation. Why is it that we suddenly have a good idea or that we suddenly know what to do regarding an important decision? We hypothesized that, in addition to conscious thought, there is also unconscious thought. That is, even when conscious attention is directed elsewhere, we can unconsciously mull over a problem, idea or decision. By now, we have accumulated quite some evidence suggesting that there is indeed unconscious thought, and that it can be extremely useful.
The perception-behavior link (1995-2001)
Goals (1996-present)
Implicit self-esteem (2000-present)
Publications
Aarts, H., & Dijksterhuis, A. Goal inference and goal contagion. In. J. Shah & W.
Gardner (Eds.), Handbook of Motivation.
Bongers, K.C.A., & Dijksterhuis, A. (2009). Consciousness as a trouble shooting device? The role of consciousness in goal-pursuit. In E. Morsella, J.A. Bargh, & P. Gollwitzer (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Human Action, 589-604. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. 
Dijksterhuis, A., Albers, L.W., & Bongers, K.C.A. Digging for the real attitude: Lessons from research on implicit and explicit self-esteem. In R. Petty, R. Fazio, & P. Brinol, (Eds.,) Attitudes: Insights from the New Wave of Implicit Measures, 229-250. New York: Psychology Press.
Dijksterhuis, A., Preston, J., Wegner, D.M., & Aarts, H. Effects of subliminal priming of self and God on self-attribution of authorship for events. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology.
Ruys, K., Dijksterhuis, A., & Corneille, O. Extending evaluative congruency effects to social category activation. Experimental Psychology.
Smith, P.K., Dijksterhuis, A., & Chaiken, S. Subliminal exposure to faces and racial attitudes: Expsoure to Whites makes Whites like Blacks less. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology.
Smith, P.K., Wigboldus, D.H.J., & Dijksterhuis, A. Abstract thinking increases one’s sense of power. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology.
Dijksterhuis, Van Baaren, Bongers, Bos, Van Leeuwen, & Van der Leij. The rational unconscious: Conscious versus unconscious thought in complex consumer choice
Müller, B. C. N, van Baaren, R. B., Ritter, S. M., Woud, M. L., Bergmann, H.,
Harakeh, Z., Engels, R. C. M. E., & Dijksterhuis, A. (2009). Tell me
why…The influence of self-involvement on short term smoking behaviour. Addictive Behaviors, 34, 427-431.
Kühn, S., Müller, B. C. N., van Baaren, R. B., Wietzker, A., Dijksterhuis, A., & Brass, M. (in press). Why do I like you when you behave like me? Neural mechanisms mediating positive consequences of observing someone being imitated. Social Neuroscience.
Kühn, S., Müller, B. C. N., van der Leij, A., Dijksterhuis, A., Brass, M., & van Baaren, R. B. (in press). Neural correlates of emotional synchrony. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience.
Bos, M.W., Dijksterhuis, A., & van Baaren, R.B. (2008). On the Goal-dependency of Unconscious Thought. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 1114-1120.
Dijksterhuis, A. (2007). When to sleep on it. Harvard Business Review, 85, 30-32.
Dijksterhuis, A., Chartrand, T.L., & Aarts, H. (2007). Effects of priming and perception on social behavior and goal pursuit. In J.A. Bargh (Ed.), Social psychology and the unconscious: The automaticity of higher mental processes, p. 51-132. Philadelphia: Psychology Press.
Aarts, H., Wegner, D.M., & Dijksterhuis, A. (2006). On the feeling of doing: Dysphoria and the implicit modulation of authorship ascription. Behavior Research and Therapy, 44, 1621-1627.
Dijksterhuis, A. The emergence of implicit self-esteem (2006). Netherlands Journal of Psychology, 1, 13-22.
Dijksterhuis, A., Bos, M.W., Nordgren, L.F., & van Baaren, R.B. (2006). On making the right choice: The deliberation-without-attention effect. Science, 311, 1005-1007.
Dijksterhuis, A., Bos, M.W., Nordgren, L.F., & van Baaren, R.B. (2006). Making choices without deliberation. Science, 312, 1472.
Dijksterhuis, A., Bos, M.W., Nordgren, L.F., & van Baaren, R.B. (2006). Complex choices better made unconsciously? Science, 313, 760-761.
Dijksterhuis, A., & Meurs, T. (2006). Where creativity resides: The generative power of unconscious thought. Consciousness and Cognition, 15, 135-146.
Dijksterhuis, A., & Nordgren, L.F. (2006). A Theory of Unconscious Thought. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, 95-109.
Dijksterhuis, A., & van Olden, Z. (2006). On the benefits of thinking unconsciously: Unconscious thought increases post-choice satisfaction. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 627-631.
Franken, I.H.A., Georgieva, I., Muris, P., & Dijksterhuis, A. (2006). The rich get richer and the poor get poorer: On risk aversion in behavioral decision-making. Judgment and Decision Making, 1, 153-158.
Dijksterhuis, A. (2005). Albert Jan (Ap) Dijksterhuis. American Psychologist, 60, 797-801.
Dijksterhuis, A. (2005). Why we are social animals: The high road to imitation as social glue. In S. Hurley & N. Chater (Eds.), Perspectives on imitation: From cognitive neuroscience to social science, Vol 2, 207-220.. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Dijksterhuis, A., Aarts, H., & Smith, P.K. (2005). The power of the subliminal: Subliminal perception and possible applications. In R. Hassin, J. Uleman, & J.A. Bargh (Eds.), The new unconscious, 77-106. New York: Oxford University Press.
Dijksterhuis, A., Smith, P.K., (2005). What do we do unconsciously? And how? Journal of Consumer Psychology, 15, 225-229.
Dijksterhuis, A., Smith, P.K., van Baaren, R.B., & Wigboldus, D.H.J. (2005). The unconscious consumer: Effects of Environment of Consumer Choice. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 15, 193-202.
Dijksterhuis, A., van Knippenberg, A. (2005). The relation between perception and behavior or how to win a game of Trivial Pursuit. In D.L. Hamilton (Eds.), Social Cognition: Classic and Contemporary Readings, 77-106. Philadelphia: Psychology Press. (reprint of: Dijksterhuis, A., van Knippenberg, A. (1998). The relation between perception and behavior or how to win a game of Trivial Pursuit. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 865-877).
Dijksterhuis, A. (2004). I like myself but I don’t know why: Enhancing implicit self-esteem by subliminal evaluative conditioning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 345-355.
Dijksterhuis, A. (2004). Think different: The merits of unconscious thought in preference development and decision making. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 586-598.
Dijksterhuis, A., Corneille, O., Aarts, H., Vermeulen, N., & Luminet, O. (2004). Yes, There is a preferential detection of negative stimuli. A reply to Labiouse. Psychological Science, 15, 571-572.
Gordijn, E.H., Hindriks, I., Koomen, W., Dijksterhuis, A., & van Knippenberg, A. (2004). Consequences of stereotype suppression and internal suppression motivation: A self-regulation approach. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 212-224.
Spears, R., Gordijn, E.H., Dijksterhuis, A., & Stapel, D.A. (2004). Reaction in action: Intergroup contrast in automatic behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 605-616.
Aarts, H., & Dijksterhuis, A. (2003). The silence of the library: Environmental control over social behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 18-28.
Aarts, H., Dijksterhuis, A., & Custers, R. (2003). Automatic normative behavior in environments: The moderating role of conformity in activating social norms. Social Cognition, 21, 447-464.
Dijksterhuis, A., & Aarts, H. (2003). On wildebeests and humans: The preferential detection of negative stimuli. Psychological Science, 14, 14-18.
Kawakami, K., Dovidio, J.F., & Dijksterhuis A. (2003). The effect of social category priming on specific attitudes: A clear and present danger. Psychological Science, 14, 315-319.
Wigboldus, D.H.J., Dijksterhuis, A., & van Knippenberg, A. (2003). When stereotypes get in the way: Stereotypes obstruct stereotype-inconsistent trait inferences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 470-484.
Aarts, H., & Dijksterhuis, A. (2002). Comparability is in the eye of the beholder: Contrast and assimilation effects of primed animal exemplars on person judgments. British Journal of Social Psychology, 41, 123-138.
Dijksterhuis, A., & Smith, P.K. (2002). Affective habituation: Subliminal exposure to extreme stimuli decreases their extremity. Emotion, 2, 203-214.
Aarts, H., & Dijksterhuis, A. (2001). The psychology of drinking: On being thirsty and perceptually ready. British Journal of Psychology, 92, 631-642.
Dijksterhuis, A. (2001). Automatic social influence: The perception-behavior link as an explanatory mechanism for behavior matching. In J. Forgas & K.D. Williams (Eds.). Social Influence, 95-108. Philadelphia: Psychology Press.
Dijksterhuis, A., & Bargh, J.A. (2001). The perception-behavior Expressway: Automatic effects of social perception on social behavior. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 33, 1-40.
Dijksterhuis, A., Spears, R., & Lépinasse, V. (2001). Reflecting and deflecting stereotypes: Assimilation and contrast in impression formation and automatic behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 37, 286-299.
Koole, S.L., Dijksterhuis, A., & van Knippenberg, A. (2001). What’s in a name: Implicit self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 614-627.
Aarts, H., & Dijksterhuis, A. (2000). Habits as knowledge structures: Automaticity in Goal-directed behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 53-63.
Aarts, H., & Dijksterhuis, A. (2000). On the automatic activation of goal-directed behavior: The case of travel habit. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 20, 75-82.
Dijksterhuis, A., Aarts, H., Bargh, J.A., & van Knippenberg, A. (2000). On the relation between associative strength and automatic behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 36, 531-544.
Dijksterhuis, A., Bargh, J. A., & Miedema, J. (2000). Of men and mackerels: Attention and automatic behavior. In H. Bless & J. P. Forgas (Eds.), Subjective experience in social cognition and behavior, 36-51. Philadelphia: Psychology Press.
Dijksterhuis, A., & van Knippenberg, A. (2000). Behavioral indecision: Effects of self-focus on automatic behavior. Social Cognition, 18, 55-74.
Glick, P., Fiske, S.T., Mladinic, A., Saiz, J.L., Abrams, D., Masser, B., Adetoun, B., Johnstone, E.O., Akande, A., Alao, A., Brunner, A., Willemsen, T.M., Chipeta, K., Dardenne, B., Dijksterhuis, A., Wigboldus, D., Eckes, T., Six-Materna, I. Exposito, F., Moya, M., Foddy, M., Kim, H., Lameiras, M., Sotelo, M.J., Mucchi-Faina, A., Romani, M., Sakall, N., & Udegbe, B. (2000). Beyond prejudice and simple antipathy: Hostile and benevolent sexism across cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 763-775.
Van Knippenberg, A. & Dijksterhuis, A. (2000). Social categorization and stereotyping: A functional approach. European Review of Social Psychology, 11, 105-144
Aarts, H., & Dijksterhuis, A. (1999). How often did I do it: Experienced ease of retrieval and self-estimates of performing mundane behaviors. Acta Psychologica, 103, 77-89.
Aarts, H., Dijksterhuis, A., & Midden, C. (1999). To plan or not to plan? Goal achievement or interrupting the performance mundane behaviors. European Journal of Social Psychology, 29, 971-980.
Dijksterhuis, A., Macrae, C.N. & Haddock, G. (1999). When recollective experiences matter: Subjective ease of retrieval and stereotyping. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 760-768.
Dijksterhuis, A., & van Knippenberg, A. (1999). On the parameters of associative strength: Central tendency and variability as determinants of stereotype accessibility. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 527-536.
Koole, S.L., Smeets, K., van Knippenberg, A., & Dijksterhuis, A. (1999). The cessation of rumination through self-affirmation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 111-125.
Van Knippenberg, A., Dijksterhuis, A. & Vermeulen, D. (1999). Judgment and memory of a criminal act: The effects of stereotypes and cognitive load. European Journal of Social Psychology, 29, 191-202.
Dijksterhuis, A., van Knippenberg, A. (1998). The relation between perception and behavior or how to win a game of Trivial Pursuit. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 865-877.
Dijksterhuis, A. & van Knippenberg, A. (1998). Inhibition, Aberdeen and other cloudy subjects. In R.S. Wyer (Ed.), Advances in Social Cognition, Vol 11, 83-96.
Dijksterhuis, A., Spears, R., Postmes, T., Stapel, D.A., Koomen, W., van Knippenberg, A. & Scheepers, D. (1998). Seeing one thing and doing another: Contrast effects in automatic behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 862-871.
Van Knippenberg, D., van Knippenberg, A. & Dijksterhuis, A. (1997). Illusory correlation and social categorization: Focus of attention as moderator of group-serving illusory correlations. British Journal of Social Psychology, 36, 427-441.
Dijksterhuis, A. & van Knippenberg, A. (1996). Trait implications as a moderator of memory for stereotype-consistent and inconsistent information. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 425-432.
Dijksterhuis, A. & van Knippenberg, A. (1996). The knife that cuts both ways: Facilitated and inhibited access to traits as a result of stereotype activation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 32, 271-288.
Dijksterhuis, A. (1996). Stereotypes and memory: The effects of a posteriori stereotypes on recall of social information. Doctoral dissertation, University of Nijmegen.
Dijksterhuis, A., van Knippenberg, A., Kruglanski, A.W. & Schaper, C. (1996). Motivated social cognition: Need for closure effects on memory and judgments. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 32, 254-270.
Van Knippenberg, A. & Dijksterhuis, A. (1996). A posteriori stereotype-activation: The preservation of stereotypes through memory distortion. Social Cognition, 14, 21-54.
Dijksterhuis, A. & van Knippenberg, A. (1995). Memory for stereotype-consistent and stereotype-inconsistent information as a function of processing pace. European Journal of Social Psychology, 25, 689-694.
Dijksterhuis, A. & van Knippenberg, A. (1995). Timing of schema activation and memory: Inhibited access to inconsistent information. European Journal of Social Psychology, 25, 383-390.